160 and Mesopotamia (fig. 1).4 In both cultures, beer was a luxury substance as well as a staple food, and it was produced in large quantities in breweries (see p. 169). The fermentation of starchy crops into beer was also practised in other parts of the world: in China, beer was made using the starch contained in rice from as early as the 4th millennium BCE;5 throughout the Andes, maize and other crops such as quinoa and amaranth were used to make chicha (maize beer);6 additionally, the drink called pulque in Mesoamerica was made from the fermented juice of the maguey agave (figs. 2–3).7 Plant-based luxury foods and stimulants not only formed the basis for alcoholic beverages, but were also consumed in various other forms. This is strikingly illustrated in the history of the Andean region through the coca plant, whose cultivation plays a vital role and dates back to over 8000 years (see pp. 193–194). Coca leaves, which contain numerous alkaloids, including the stimulant cocaine, not only promote oxygen circulation in the body, but are also used for their psychotropic effects. 1 Relief fragment, marble, Ur (Iraq), Sumerian, 2900–2350 BCE, Sulaymaniyah Museum, Iraqi Kurdistan. Depictions of banquet scenes are widespread in Sumerian culture. An important component is the communal consumption of beer. Beer was an everyday staple in ancient Mesopotamia. In Central and North America, on the other hand, tobacco was consumed by means of smoking, snuffing or chewing (see pp. 185–186). Archaeological findings have shown that the stimulating and psychotropic effects of tobacco were already known to the Indigenous inhabitants of the American continent 12,000 years ago.8 The consumption of tea leaves in China was first documented more than 2000 years ago. The leaves of the wild tea plant were originally used for medicinal purposes. Over time, however, their refreshing taste and stimulating properties were also recognized, which resulted in the systematization of the plant’s cultivation (see pp. 207–208). The history of coffee follows a similar path. Although the exact origins of coffee consumption have not been clearly established, there are indications that people had already discovered the stimulating effect of coffee as far back as ancient times. It is believed that members of the Oromo people in Ethiopia were among the first to use coffee beans and prepare a beverage from them.9 From there, coffee
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